Population Density:
A unit increase in population density is associated with a slight increase in the odds of having an operational wind plant. This suggests that areas with higher population densities are marginally more likely to host wind plants and less likely to experience minority holder opinions taking the majority. Therein, as urbanization and population density increase, it becomes increasingly feasible and advantageous for these areas to invest in and support wind energy projects.
Median Income:
An increase in median income is linked to a decrease in the odds of having an operational wind plant. Higher income areas show a lower likelihood of wind plant activity, potentially due to different local priorities or economic factors. Uneven socio-economic power-dynamics could lead to minority opinion holders preventing the development of wind power infrastructure, alongside other renewable energy solutions. Overall, this suggests that socioeconomic factors play a significant role in shaping the types of renewable energy projects that are pursued and highlights the need for tailored strategies to address diverse community priorities in renewable energy planning.
Anti-Wind Infrastructure Opinion:
Areas with higher opposition to wind infrastructure are less likely to have operational wind plants. This aligns with expectations that local opposition impacts the establishment of wind plants. Therefore, addressing and mitigating local resistance is essential for enhancing the feasibility and acceptance of wind energy initiatives.
Spatial Distorted Signalling (SDS) describes the mobilization of minority opinion holders pushing back electorally and promote legislation that aligns with their beliefs. Leah Stokes (et.al) has explored the SDS phenomenon as a natural experiment in her piece, Electoral Backlash against Climate Policy: A Natural Experiment on Retrospective Voting and Local Resistance to Public Policy (2016). The findings in this paper describe that rural Canadian communities had a greater ability to mobilize and organize political push back against majority chair holders in parliament after the passing of legislation which invited the development of wind infrastructure through incentives.
Stokes’ subsequent work, Replication Data for: Prevalence and Predictors of Wind Energy Opposition in North America (2023), further explores variables like political affiliation and local mobilization. This study aims to reproduce these outcomes with U.S. wind plant data to understand how population density, income, and anti-wind opinions impact wind plant activity, providing insights into local resistance and its effects on renewable energy projects.
Single & Multivariate Logit Regression Models
Used to estimate the effects of various predictors on wind plant activity.
Logit & Log Odds
Provided insights into the relationship between predictors and the likelihood of wind plant operation.
Predictive Probability
Used to estimate the probability of operational wind plants based on predictor variables.
Ethical Critiques
Addressing limitations and potential biases in the analysis.
Omitted Variable Bias (OVB)
The analysis may be limited by omitted variables that could influence wind plant activity. Ensuring the exogeneity of variables is challenging, and logistic regression models do not account for all underlying factors.
Insufficient Data
The data set may lack comprehensive factors affecting wind plant activity, such as specific local policies or environmental conditions.
U.S. Wind Power Plant DataThe data source that was utilized in this project, US Wind Data, focuses on the public stance on wind infrastructure for census tract regions within a 3 km buffer zone of a wind infrastructure project. It contains categorical variables, binary variables, continuous socioeconomic factors such as % of races, % precinct political GOP affiliated voting share, mobilization tactics, and more. For simplicity’s sake, we’re going to focus on the variables below.
| Name | Description |
|---|---|
| status | Describes the project operating status. In this study, we have converted it into a binary variable: 1 is operating, 0 is not_operating. |
| pop_den | Tract-level 2010 census data for population density (per mi^2) |
| med_inc | Tract-level 2010 census data for median income ($) |
| is_anti_wind | Binary measure of wind opposition: 1 is against wind power developments, 0 is pro wind power developments. |
Replication Data for: Prevalence and Predictors of Wind Energy Opposition in North America: DOI 10.7910/DVN/LE2V0R
Collaborators: Leah Stokes, Emma Franzblau, Jessica R. Lovering, Chris Miljanich
Source: American Wind Association, Columbia Sabin Center
The following libraries were selected based on their functionality and ability to optimize our data for mapping.
# Loading Libraries
library(tidyverse) # essential r package
library(sf) # package simplifies spatial dataframes
library(tmap)
library(terra)
library(broom)
library(stars)
library(sjPlot)
library(naniar)
library(cowplot)
library(maptiles)
library(ggthemes)
library(ggspatial)
library(patchwork)
library(kableExtra)
set.seed(99)
knitr::opts_chunk$set(echo = T, warning = F, message = F)Converting Vector into Raster Data for Mapping
Below we will use the package sf to convert the lat/long vector data into a raster geometry column. In this single line, we will also be assigning the CRS EPSG:4326 to the sf data frame. Coordinate Reference Systems, CRS, are required in order for the data to be projected onto a map. The CRS was selected because it provides a relatively proportionate display of the United States. We are open to suggestions regarding our CRS if a different project better fits our data.
U.S. Wind Data#~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
# ---- Read & Raster ----
#~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
# reading in & storing data
wind_data <- read.csv("../data/wind_data/wind_data_usa.csv")
# Confirm the Data Loaded Properly
#head(wind_data) # displays the first 6 rows of the data
# Let's read in our data
wind_sf <- wind_data %>%
# creates geometry column with desired crs
st_as_sf(coords = c("longitude", "latitude"), crs = 4326)
# quick CRS check
#glimpse(crs(wind_sf)) # output should reveal WGS84, EPSG:4326
#~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
# ---- Check Point! ----
#~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
# Let's stop and see if our outputs are what we expect.
# Were the lat/long columns correctly converted into a geometry column?
# setdiff() is a way to quickly determine the differences between two data sets.
# Sweet! we are looking good
#setdiff(colnames(wind_sf), colnames(wind_data))Before diving in, let’s get a sense of where we’ll be investigating. Using `ggplot()`, we can visualize the locations of wind infrastructure power plants throughout the United States. To achieve a more granular map, we’ll need to utilize another data set to create a base layer for our map in order to observe these wind plants with respect to state and county jurisdictions.
# First visual of the U.S. wind data provided by the geometry points
wind_plants <- ggplot(wind_sf) +
annotation_map_tile(type = "osm") +
geom_sf(col = 'darkgreen',
alpha = 0.5,
size = 3)
wind_plants
We will employ a series of models to describe the effect of census tract level population density on the operating status of wind power infrastructure. A combination of binary and interaction logit regression will be considered.
The initial model will apply OLS regression, this is really a formality to demonstrate why OLS is not the correct approach for interpreting our relationships of interest. The following will be a model with two continuous variables
Binary Indicator Variable will be status column: opertating is 1, and not_operating will be 0.
These variables focus more on regionally dependent factors that intuitively seem to have an impact on mobilization variables that we don’t have time to cover in this project. We’ll be working with a mix of discrete and continuous data, so there some wrangling will be necessary to run the regressions we’re interested in.
#~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
# ---- Inspect & Standarize Data ----
#~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
# Determining Variable Assignments for OLS
#unique(wind_sf$status) # displays unique values in this
# Need to rename status output variables
# creating two categories: operating & not_operating
# We are removing 'Operating | Decommissioned' because it skews the data
unwanted_status <- "Operating | Decommissioned"
replacement_status <- "Uncertain Status"
wind_sf$status[wind_sf$status== unwanted_status]<-"Uncertain Status"
# were we successful ?
#unique(wind_sf$status) # displays unique values in this
# cleaning out NAs for OLS
wind_sf <- wind_sf %>%
filter(is.na(status) == 'FALSE') %>%
filter(is.na(is_anti_wind) == 'FALSE') %>%
filter(is.na(pop_den) == 'FALSE') %>%
filter(is.na(med_inc) == 'FALSE') %>%
filter(is.na(median_age) == 'FALSE') %>%
filter(is.na(n_turbs) == 'FALSE')
# were we successful ?
#unique(wind_sf$status) # displays unique values in this
# if_else preserves the data type but replaces unwanted values
wind_us <- wind_sf %>%
mutate(status = if_else(
status %in% c('Cancelled', 'Out of service (temporarily)', 'Standby', 'Decommissioned', 'Uncertain Status'), 'not_operating',
'operating')
)
# are our only outputs "operating" and "not_operating"?
#print(unique(wind_us$status))
# status as factor and reassigned values
wind_us <- wind_us %>%
mutate(status = case_when(status == "operating" ~ 1,
status == "not_operating" ~ 0))Does the binary variable contain only 0s or 1s?
#~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
# ---- Check point! ----
#~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
# are our only outputs 0 or 1?
print(unique(wind_us$status))[1] 1 0Before jumping into any analysis, it’s important to get a sense of how the data is distributed and if there are any underlying trends or biases. The two visual aids we’re going to create are a violin plot with jitter points (left) and a comparative regression plot using OLS and GLM (right). Combining two figures provides us fuller insights into both the general trend and changes in probability of the binary outcome for the population density predictor.
The visualizations display the majority of the distribution lies within the actively operating wind infrastructure plants. A trend of inactive plants and lower population density is notable in both figures. Collectively they demonstrate smaller population densities contain more inactive wind infrastructure plants. This could be attributed to with weight of a singular vote in regions with smaller demographics.
Local mobilization of minority opinion holders in these regions have a greater availability to push back against policymakers. However, this visual does not encapsulate all of the necessary information required to determine this with full certainty. Our data set has low availability for non-operating infrastructure and as such, in the regression figure on the right these are being treated as outliers.
#~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
# ---- Violin Distribution ----
#~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
# Create the violin plot with log scale
density_plot <- ggplot(data = wind_us,
aes(x = factor(status),
y = pop_den,
fill = factor(status))) +
geom_violin(alpha = 0.6, color = "darkblue") +
geom_jitter(col = "#F84C0B",
width = 0,
height = 0.05,
alpha = 0.35,
size = 4) +
labs(title = "Population Density vs Wind Power Plant Operating Status",
subtitle= "Logorithimic Distribution",
x = "Activation Status",
y = expression("Population Density (Log Scale, " ~ mi^-2 ~ ")")) +
# rename x-axis labels for clarity
scale_x_discrete(labels = c("0" = "Inactive", "1" = "Active")) +
# Apply logarithmic scale to y-axis
scale_y_log10() +
theme_538() +
scale_fill_manual(values = c("skyblue", "darkblue")) +
# Adjust title font and alignment
theme(plot.title = element_text(size = 40,
family = "Georgia",
face = "bold",
hjust = .99,
color ="#293F2C"),
# Adjust subtitle font and alignment
plot.subtitle = element_text(size = 38,
family = "Georgia",
color ="#293F2C",
hjust = 0.5),
axis.title = element_text(size = 36,
family = "Georgia",
color ="#293F2C"),
axis.text = element_text(size = 34,
family = "Georgia",
color ="#293F2C"),
# Move legend to the bottom
legend.position = "top",
# Remove legend title if not needed
legend.title = element_blank(),
# Adjust legend text size
legend.text = element_text(size = 34,
family = "Georgia",
color ="#293F2C"),
# Background color for legend
legend.key = element_rect(fill = "grey94", color = "grey94"),
plot.background = element_rect(color = "#FDFBF7")
) +
coord_flip()
#~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
# ---- Jitter OLS + GLM ----
#~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
# Optimized jitter plot with smooth lines
jitter_plot_optimized <- ggplot(data = wind_us,
aes(x = pop_den,
y = status)) +
# assign color to legend
geom_jitter(aes(color = "Data Points"),
width = 0,
height = 0.05,
alpha = 0.6,
size = 4) + # Adjusted size for better visibility
geom_smooth(method = "lm",
se = FALSE,
aes(color = "OLS Line"),
size = 1.2, # Slightly thicker line for visibility
linetype = "solid") +
geom_smooth(method = "glm",
se = T,
aes(color = "GLM Line"),
size = 1.2,
linetype = "dashed",
method.args = list(family = "binomial")) +
labs(title = "Population Density vs Wind Power Plant Operating Status",
subtitle= "Logorithimic Distribution Regression Comparison",
y = "Activation Status",
x = expression("Population Density (Log Scale, " ~ mi^-2 ~ ")")) +
# rename yaxis labels for clarity
scale_y_continuous(breaks = c(0, 1),
labels = c("0" = "Inactive", "1" = "Active")) +
scale_x_log10() +
theme_538() +
# Adjust title font and alignment
theme(plot.title = element_text(size = 40,
family = "Georgia",
face = "bold",
hjust = .99,
color ="#293F2C"),
# Adjust subtitle font and alignment
plot.subtitle = element_text(size = 38,
family = "Georgia",
hjust = 0.5,
color ="#293F2C"),
axis.title = element_text(size = 36,
family = "Georgia",
color ="#293F2C"),
axis.text = element_text(size = 34,
family = "Georgia",
color ="#293F2C"),
# Move legend to the bottom
legend.position = "top",
# Remove legend title if not needed
legend.title = element_blank(),
# Adjust legend text size
legend.text = element_text(size = 34,
family = "Georgia",
color ="#293F2C"),
# Background color for legend
legend.key = element_rect(fill = "grey94", color = "grey94"),
plot.background = element_rect(color = "#FDFBF7")
) +
scale_color_manual(name = "Legend", # Title for the legend
values = c("Data Points" = "#F84C0B",
"OLS Line" = "blue",
"GLM Line" = "skyblue"),
labels = c("Data Points" = "Data Points",
"OLS Line" = "OLS Line",
"GLM Line" = "GLM Line"))
# Combine plots horizontally
combined_plot <- density_plot +
jitter_plot_optimized +
# Arrange plots side-by-side
plot_layout(ncol = 2)
combined_plot
Logistic Model with One Continuous Variable\[\operatorname{logit}(p)=\log \left(\frac{p}{1-p}\right)=\beta_0+\beta_1 (Population Density) +\varepsilon \]
In Table 2, the intercept has a log-odds of 3.272 is noted a statistically significant value (p-value < 0.01). This value provides insights into the baseline probability of the outcome when all predictors are set to zero. It suggests that the baseline probability of having an active wind plant
#~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
# ---- 1 Continuous Variable ----
#~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
# Initial regression 1 betas for null
# function
status <- glm(status ~ pop_den,
wind_us,
family = 'binomial')
# model table
sjPlot::tab_model(status,
transform = NULL,
# predictor labels
pred.labels = c("Intercept", "Population Density (mi^-2)"),
# include p-val
show.p = TRUE,
p.style = c("numeric_stars"),
p.threshold = c(0.10, 0.05, 0.01),
dv.labels = c("log Probability of Active Wind Power Plant Operating Status"),
string.p = "p-value",
show.r2 = FALSE,
title = "Table 2: Logit Regression Model Results for Population Density",
digits = 3)| log Probability of Active Wind Power Plant Operating Status | |||
| Predictors | Log-Odds | CI | p-value |
| Intercept | 3.272 *** | 2.968 – 3.605 | <0.001 |
| Population Density (mi^-2) | 0.000 | -0.000 – 0.001 | 0.593 |
| Observations | 1179 | ||
| * p<0.1 ** p<0.05 *** p<0.01 | |||
Logistic Model with Two Continuous Variables\[\operatorname{logit}(p)=\log \left(\frac{p}{1-p}\right)=\beta_0+\beta_1 (Population Density) + \beta_2 (Median Income) +\varepsilon \]
In Table 3, the intercept has a log-odds of 4.028 is noted a statistically significant value (p-value < 0.01). This value provides insights into the baseline probability of the outcome when all predictors are set to zero.
#~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
# ---- 2 Continuous Variables ----
#~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
status_2 <- glm(status ~ pop_den + med_inc,
wind_us,
family = 'binomial')
# model table
sjPlot::tab_model(status_2,
transform = NULL,
# predictor labels
pred.labels = c("Intercept", "Population Density (mi^-2)", "Median Income ($)"),
# include p-val
show.p = TRUE,
p.style = c("numeric_stars"),
p.threshold = c(0.10, 0.05, 0.01),
dv.labels = c("log Probability of Active Wind Power Plant Operating Status"),
string.p = "p-value",
show.r2 = FALSE,
title = "Table 3: Logit Regression Model Results for Population Density & Median Income",
digits = 3)| log Probability of Active Wind Power Plant Operating Status | |||
| Predictors | Log-Odds | CI | p-value |
| Intercept | 4.028 *** | 3.007 – 4.974 | <0.001 |
| Population Density (mi^-2) | 0.000 | -0.000 – 0.001 | 0.512 |
| Median Income ($) | -0.000 * | -0.000 – 0.000 | 0.096 |
| Observations | 1179 | ||
| * p<0.1 ** p<0.05 *** p<0.01 | |||
In order to calculate the baseline probability of having an active wind plant, the following equation will be applied:
\[\operatorname{logit}(p)=\log \left(\frac{p}{1-p}\right)=\beta_0+\beta_1 + \beta_2+\varepsilon \]
it is manipulated to solve for the probability, p: \[p̂ = e^(β0+β1x1+eβ0+β1x)\]
To simplify our workflow, we’re going to solve for p using the uniroot function to find the probability for different values of population density. It allows us to solve for a range of p values using \(R^2\).
We’re going to inspect the operational probability according to the population density quantile.
# Define a function to calculate probability from logistic regression coefficients
find_probability <- function(pop_den, coefficients) {
fun <- function(p) {
(1 - p) * exp(coefficients[1] + coefficients[2] * pop_den) - p
}
uniroot(fun, interval = c(0, 1))$root
}
# Coefficients from the logistic regression model
coefficients <- status$coefficients
# What are the pop den quantiles?
#quantile(wind_data$pop_den)
# Population density quantiles from the data
quantiles_pop_den <- c(quantile(wind_sf$pop_den))
# Calculate probabilities for each quantile value
probabilities <- sapply(quantiles_pop_den, function(d) find_probability(d, coefficients))
# Create a dataframe with the quantile population densities and their corresponding probabilities
pop_den_prob <- data.frame(
pop_density = quantiles_pop_den,
probability = probabilities
)
# Print the table using kable
kable(pop_den_prob,
format = "pipe",
col.names = c("Population Density (mi^-2)", "Probability"),
caption = "Table 4: Probability of Active Wind Power Plant Operating Status at Different Population Densities")| Population Density (mi^-2) | Probability | |
|---|---|---|
| 0% | 1.431998e-01 | 0.9634634 |
| 25% | 4.308644e+00 | 0.9634896 |
| 50% | 1.249329e+01 | 0.9635412 |
| 75% | 4.039379e+01 | 0.9637166 |
| 100% | 1.394051e+04 | 0.9968966 |
# Define the function to calculate probability
find_probability_2 <- function(pop_den, med_inc, coefficients) {
# Logistic regression function
logit <- coefficients_2["(Intercept)"] + coefficients_2["pop_den"] * pop_den + coefficients_2["med_inc"] * med_inc
p <- exp(logit) / (1 + exp(logit))
return(p)
}
# Define quantiles for population density and income
quantiles_pop_den <- c(0, 4.31505, 12.53426, 40.79216, 13940.51491)
quantiles_med_inc <- c(14962.0, 41424.0, 47750.0, 55405.5, 185769.0)
# Coefficients from the logistic regression model
coefficients_2 <- status_2$coefficients
# Create a data frame for the plot
plot_data <- expand.grid(
income_group = quantiles_med_inc,
pop_den_group = quantiles_pop_den) %>%
mutate(
probability = mapply(
function(inc, den) find_probability_2(den, inc, coefficients_2),
income_group,
pop_den_group
),
income_group_label = factor(income_group,
levels = quantiles_med_inc,
labels = paste0("Income Quantile ", 1:5)),
# name change for plotting ease
pop_den_group_label = factor(pop_den_group,
levels = quantiles_pop_den,
labels = paste0("Quantile ",
1:5))
)
color_palette <- c(
"Quantile 1" = "grey80", # Very light blue
"Quantile 2" = "#D0EAFB", # Light blue
"Quantile 3" = "#A6C7E1", # Medium-light blue
"Quantile 4" = "#4A90D3", # Medium blue
"Quantile 5" = "#003C71" # Dark blue
)
# Create the plot
ggplot(plot_data, aes(x = income_group_label,
y = probability,
fill = pop_den_group_label)) +
geom_bar(stat = "identity",
position = "dodge") +
scale_fill_manual(values = color_palette) +
labs(
title = "Probability of Active Wind Power Plant Operating Status" ,
subtitle = paste0("Assessing Median Income ($) and Population Density (", expression("mi^-2 "), ") Quantiles"),
x = "Income Quantile ($)",
y = "Probability",
fill = "Population Density Quantile"
) +
theme_minimal() +
theme(
text = element_text(family = "Georgia",
size = 18),
axis.text.x = element_text(size = 10),
axis.text.y = element_text(size = 10),
axis.title.x = element_text(size = 12),
axis.title.y = element_text(size = 12),
plot.title = element_text(size = 17,
face = "bold",
hjust = .99),
plot.subtitle = element_text(size = 15,
hjust = 1.25),
# Adjust legend
legend.position = "top",
# Smaller legend title
legend.title = element_text(size = 12),
# Smaller legend text
legend.text = element_text(size = 10),
# Smaller legend key (box size)
legend.key.size = unit(0.5, "cm"),
# Space between legend items
legend.spacing.x = unit(0.2, "cm"),
# Space between legend items
legend.spacing.y = unit(0.2, "cm"),
legend.background = element_rect(fill = "white",
color = "grey100",
# Background box
size = 0.5)
) +
guides(fill = guide_legend(title = "Population Density Quantile",
title.position = "top",
title.hjust = 0.5))
The probability distribution of having an active local wind plant across different population density and median income quantiles reveals some notable trends:
Population Density: Consistent with expectations, areas with the highest population density show the highest probability of hosting wind plants in this example. This trend aligns with the assumption that regions with more people may have a higher demand for renewable energy sources like wind power. Studies have shown, “urban areas with higher population densities are often more likely to invest in environmental infrastructure, including wind energy projects” (Kahn, 2007, p. 58).
Median Income: Interestingly, high-income areas with lower population densities tend to have the lowest likelihood of having an active local wind plant. This observation is intriguing and suggests that higher income alone may decrease the probability of wind power plant activity. A study on socio-economic dynamics conducted by McCright and Dunlap found “socioeconomic status significantly affects individuals’ environmental attitudes and policy preferences” (McCright & Dunlap, 2011, p. 402). Their research suggests that higher-income individuals might have different priorities or less immediate need for such infrastructure compared to lower-income communities.
Question:Could an assumption be made in which areas at risk of spatially distorted signalling have a greater propensity for higher median income and lower population density?
Let’s touch a bit on the social psychology at potentially at play.
Resources and Political Mobilization:
Higher Income Brackets: Addressing this question involves considering the impact of political and economic influence on energy policy. Verba, Schlozman, and Brady argue that “higher-income individuals typically have more resources and time to engage in political activities, which can influence local energy policies” (Verba, Schlozman, & Brady, 1995, p. 234). This might suggest that wealthier areas could exert more influence to prioritize different energy investments or limit the visibility of such projects.
Lower Income Brackets: Conversely, those in lower income brackets may have fewer resources and less time for such activities, potentially resulting in lower levels of wind plant advocacy and adoption.
Donations and Lobbying:
Influence of Socioeconomic Status:
Now that we’ve explored probabilities for our two models in a systematic way, it’s important to have an understanding of these relationships on a continuous scale. To gain a deeper understanding of the logistic regression model, we will leverage the Odds Ratio. We will create a table displaying the Odds Ratio, which quantifies how frequently a binary event occurs relative to its baseline. This approach provides a comprehensive and more efficient way to interpret the relationships between variables in the model.
To better interpret the relationship in our logistic regression model, we will focus on odds rather than probabilities. Although odds and probabilities are often confused, they are distinct concepts that are related through the following formula:
\[\operatorname{logit}(p)=\log \left(\frac{p}{1-p}\right)=\beta_0+\beta_1 (Population Density) + \beta_2 (Median Income) +\varepsilon \]
The odds of a binary event are the ratio of how often it happens, to how often it doesn’t happen. Here, \[\hat{p}\]represents the predicted probability, and \[exp(β^0+β^1⋅x)\exp(\hat{\beta}_0 + \hat{\beta}_1 \cdot x)exp(β^0+β^1⋅x) \] denotes the odds based on our model.
We will create an odds_hat variable to represent the predicted odds. The odds ratio for a one-unit increase in the predictor variable, x, is given by:
\[ e^{\hat{\beta}_1} \]
This ratio indicates how the odds of the outcome change with a one-unit increase in x. Importantly:
Interpretation of Odds Ratio: eβ1e{_1}eβ^1 is the factor by which the odds are multiplied for a one-unit increase in the predictor variable x
Independence from Predictor Value: This ratio does not depend on the specific value of x; it represents a constant multiplicative effect on the odds regardless of x’s value.
Thus, the odds ratio provides a useful and consistent measure of the effect of a predictor variable on the odds of the outcome in logistic regression.
Logistic Model with One Continuous Variable# Generate predictions and calculate odds
status_popden_predicted_odds <- status %>%
augment(type.predict = "response") %>%
mutate(y_hat = .fitted,
odds_hat = y_hat / (1 - y_hat)) %>%
# Order by odds in descending order
arrange(desc(odds_hat)) %>%
# Select top 5 rows
slice_head(n = 10)
# Create and style the table
status_popden_predicted_odds %>%
select(y_hat, odds_hat) %>%
mutate(
y_hat = scales::percent(y_hat, accuracy = 1),
odds_hat = scales::number(odds_hat, accuracy = 1)
) %>%
kable(
caption = "Table 5: Top 10 Predicted Odds and Probabilities from Logistic Regression",
format = "html",
digits = 2
) %>%
kable_styling(
bootstrap_options = c("striped", "hover", "condensed", "responsive"),
position = "center",
font_size = 12
)| y_hat | odds_hat |
|---|---|
| 100% | 321 |
| 99% | 159 |
| 99% | 79 |
| 99% | 77 |
| 99% | 69 |
| 99% | 69 |
| 98% | 63 |
| 98% | 58 |
| 98% | 58 |
| 98% | 57 |
Our model estimates that one unit increase in population density is associated with a change in the odds ratio of \(e^(0.0002) =1.0002\), or a 2.0e-04% increase in the odds of wind plant having an operating status.
# Ensure you have the correct model object
# Summary of the model to check coefficients
model_summary <- summary(status)
# Extract the odds ratio for population density
# Assuming population density is the second coefficient
odds_ratio_pop_den <- exp(model_summary$coefficients["pop_den", "Estimate"])
# Generate a descriptive text with the rounded odds ratio
paste0("Odds Ratio for Population Density is ", round(odds_ratio_pop_den, 4))[1] "Odds Ratio for Population Density is 1.0002"Logistic Model with Two Continuous Variables
# Generate predictions and calculate odds
status_popden_predicted_odds_2 <- status_2 %>%
augment(type.predict = "response") %>%
mutate(y_hat = .fitted,
odds_hat = y_hat / (1 - y_hat)) %>%
# Order by odds in descending order
arrange(desc(odds_hat)) %>%
# Select top 5 rows
slice_head(n = 10)
# Create and style the table
status_popden_predicted_odds_2 %>%
select(y_hat, odds_hat) %>%
mutate(
y_hat = scales::percent(y_hat, accuracy = 1),
odds_hat = scales::number(odds_hat, accuracy = 1)
) %>%
kable(
caption = "Table 6: Top 10 Predicted Odds and Probabilities from Logistic Regression",
format = "html",
digits = 2
) %>%
kable_styling(
bootstrap_options = c("striped", "hover", "condensed", "responsive"),
position = "center",
font_size = 12
)| y_hat | odds_hat |
|---|---|
| 100% | 1 103 |
| 100% | 415 |
| 99% | 146 |
| 99% | 119 |
| 99% | 109 |
| 99% | 109 |
| 99% | 102 |
| 99% | 87 |
| 99% | 84 |
| 99% | 81 |
\[\operatorname{logit}(p)=\log \left(\frac{p}{1-p}\right)=\beta_0+\beta_1 (Population Density) + \beta_2 (Median Income) +\varepsilon \]
# Ensure you have the correct model object
# Summary of the model to check coefficients
model_summary_2 <- summary(status_2)
# Extract and calculate the odds ratio for population density
odds_ratio_pop_den <- exp(model_summary_2$coefficients["pop_den", "Estimate"])
# Extract and calculate the odds ratio for median income
# Note: Since the odds ratio for median income is typically 1 - exp(Estimate), this should be done correctly
odds_ratio_med_inc <- 1 - exp(model_summary_2$coefficients["med_inc", "Estimate"])
# Generate descriptive texts with the rounded odds ratios
paste0("Odds Ratio for Population Density: ", round(odds_ratio_pop_den, 4))[1] "Odds Ratio for Population Density: 1.0002"paste0("Odds Ratio for Median Income: ", round(odds_ratio_med_inc, 4))[1] "Odds Ratio for Median Income: 0"To evaluate the probability of having an active wind plant, we use out-of-sample predictions with the type.predict argument set to “response” to obtain fitted values on the probability scale.
Logistic Model with One Continuous Variable
# probability scale
probability_predictions <- augment(status, type.predict = "response")
probability_predictions <- probability_predictions %>%
# Order by odds in descending order
arrange(desc(.fitted)) %>%
# Select top 5 rows
slice_head(n = 10)
probability_predictions_table <- probability_predictions %>%
mutate(Predicted_Probability = .fitted,
Std_Dev = .sigma) %>%
select(Predicted_Probability, Std_Dev) %>%
mutate(Predicted_Probability = scales::percent(Predicted_Probability, accuracy = 1)) %>%
kable(caption = "Table 7: Probability Predictions from Logistic Regression Model",
format = "html",
digits = 2) %>%
kable_styling(bootstrap_options = c("striped", "hover", "condensed", "responsive"),
position = "center",
font_size = 12)
probability_predictions_table| Predicted_Probability | Std_Dev |
|---|---|
| 100% | 0.55 |
| 99% | 0.55 |
| 99% | 0.55 |
| 99% | 0.55 |
| 99% | 0.55 |
| 99% | 0.55 |
| 98% | 0.55 |
| 98% | 0.55 |
| 98% | 0.55 |
| 98% | 0.55 |
Logistic Model with Two Continuous Variables
# probability scale
probability_predictions_2 <- augment(status_2, type.predict = "response")
probability_predictions_2 <- probability_predictions_2 %>%
# Order by odds in descending order
arrange(desc(.fitted)) %>%
# Select top 5 rows
slice_head(n = 10)
probability_predictions_table_2 <- probability_predictions_2 %>%
mutate(Predicted_Probability = .fitted,
Std_Dev = .sigma) %>%
select(Predicted_Probability, Std_Dev) %>%
mutate(Predicted_Probability = scales::percent(Predicted_Probability, accuracy = 1)) %>%
kable(caption = "Table 8: Probability Predictions from Logistic Regression Model",
format = "html",
digits = 2) %>%
kable_styling(bootstrap_options = c("striped", "hover", "condensed", "responsive"),
position = "center",
font_size = 12)
probability_predictions_table_2| Predicted_Probability | Std_Dev |
|---|---|
| 100% | 0.55 |
| 100% | 0.55 |
| 99% | 0.55 |
| 99% | 0.55 |
| 99% | 0.55 |
| 99% | 0.55 |
| 99% | 0.55 |
| 99% | 0.55 |
| 99% | 0.55 |
| 99% | 0.55 |
For example, our bivariate model predicts the odds that an area with a population density of 124 (\(mi^-2\)) and a median income of $46,094 and would have an operating wind plant is ~97%.
# New data for prediction
exploring_model <- data.frame(pop_den = 124, med_inc = 46094)
# Get predictions
predicted_probability <- augment(status_2, newdata = exploring_model, type.predict = "response") %>%
select(.fitted) %>%
mutate(Predicted_Probability = scales::percent(.fitted, accuracy = 1)) %>%
rename("Predicted Probability" = Predicted_Probability) %>%
add_column(
"Population Density" = exploring_model$pop_den,
"Median Income" = exploring_model$med_inc,
.before = 1
)
# Display the table
predicted_probability %>%
kable(
caption = "Predicted Probability for Population Density and Median Income Under Specific Conditions",
format = "html",
digits = 2
) %>%
kable_styling(
bootstrap_options = c("striped", "hover", "condensed", "responsive"),
position = "center",
font_size = 12
)| Population Density | Median Income | .fitted | Predicted Probability |
|---|---|---|---|
| 124 | 46094 | 0.97 | 97% |
To interpret the model, we compute the odds ratios for each coefficient, providing insight into how each variable and its interactions affect wind plant activity.
\[\operatorname{logit}(p)=\log \left(\frac{p}{1-p}\right)=\beta_0+\beta_1 (Population Density) * \beta_2 (Median Income) * \beta_3 (AntiWindOpinion) +\varepsilon \]
This table provides a comprehensive view of how each variable and their interactions contribute to the likelihood of wind plant activity, facilitating a better understanding of the model’s results.
# Fit the comprehensive model
comprehensive_model <- glm(status ~ pop_den * med_inc * is_anti_wind,
data = wind_us,
family = 'binomial')
#summary(comprehensive_model)
# Compute odds ratios for the model coefficients
#exp(coef(comprehensive_model))
# Extract coefficients and compute odds ratios
coef_summary <- data.frame(
Term = names(coef(comprehensive_model)),
Estimate = coef(comprehensive_model),
Odds_Ratio = exp(coef(comprehensive_model))
)
# Create and style the table
kable(coef_summary, format = "html", digits = 4, caption = "Table 10: Summary of Coefficients and Odds Ratios") %>%
kable_styling(bootstrap_options = c("striped", "hover", "condensed", "responsive"), position = "center", font_size = 12)| Term | Estimate | Odds_Ratio | |
|---|---|---|---|
| (Intercept) | (Intercept) | 4.1017 | 60.4441 |
| pop_den | pop_den | 0.0011 | 1.0011 |
| med_inc | med_inc | 0.0000 | 1.0000 |
| is_anti_wind | is_anti_wind | -0.7008 | 0.4962 |
| pop_den:med_inc | pop_den:med_inc | 0.0000 | 1.0000 |
| pop_den:is_anti_wind | pop_den:is_anti_wind | -0.0016 | 0.9984 |
| med_inc:is_anti_wind | med_inc:is_anti_wind | 0.0000 | 1.0000 |
| pop_den:med_inc:is_anti_wind | pop_den:med_inc:is_anti_wind | 0.0000 | 1.0000 |
@online{ingersoll2023,
author = {Ingersoll, Sofia},
title = {Spatially {Distorted} {Signaling:} {How} {Opinions} {Against}
{Wind} {Infrastructure} {Delay} {Our} {Transition} to {Renewable}
{Energy}},
date = {2023-12-14},
url = {https://saingersoll.github.io/posts/SDS_Wind_Infrastructure},
langid = {en}
}